Article: Neuro-linguistic programming

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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal development. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The initial ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson. The term "Neuro-linguistic programming" denotes a set of models and principles meant to explore how mind and neurology (neuro), language patterns (linguistic), and the organization of human perception and cognition into systemic patterns (programming) interact to create subjective reality and human behaviors.

Based upon language patterns and body language cues derived from the observation of several world-renowned therapists^[1], NLP focused on areas such as how subjective reality drives beliefs, perceptions and behaviors, and therefore how behavior change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas is often possible through appropriate techniques based upon how known experts worked with this relationship.^[1][2][3] The techniques distilled from these observations were metaphorically described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic," with NLP itself described as 'the study of the structure of subjective experience".^[4][5] They are predicated upon the principle that all behaviors (whether excellent or dysfunctional) are not random, but have a practically determinable structure ^[3][6] NLP has been applied to a number of fields such as sales, psychotherapy, communication, education, coaching, sport, business management, interpersonal relationships, as well as less mainstream areas such as seduction and spirituality.

Due in part to its open-ended philosophy, NLP is controversial. It is at times criticized in the scientific community as unproven or pseudoscientific^{[citation needed]}, and amongst those who watch for fraud, for exaggerated claims and unethical approaches by a number of practitioners.^{[citation needed]} There is also some dispute among its developers and proponents regarding what NLP is and is not.^{[citation needed]} On the other hand, a wide range of credible bodies worldwide^[7] have given strongly worded support for its use, if taught by a skilled and competent trainer and used appropriately.

Overview

Philosophical stance

NLP is sometimes described as an empirical epistemology. That is, it is a way of knowing with evidence obtained by experiment and observation rather than results derived from an overall theory. It is eclectic, that is, it draws heavily on results from other fields if felt useful, and acts as a "toolbox" ^{[citation needed]} in the sense that it is silent as to any pre-specified purpose or application, leaving that ultimately to the end user(s) to decide. As such, it studies processes (or form), rather than content.

Druckman (1988) comments:^[8]

"The system was developed in answer to [why] particular psychotherapists were so effective with their patients. Rather than explore this question in terms of psychotherapeutic theory and practice, Bandler and Grinder sought to analyze what the therapists were doing at an observational level, categorize it, and apply the categories as a general model of interpersonal influence. NLP seeks to instruct people to observe, make inferences, and respond to others, as did the three original, very effective therapists."

Its approach and philosophy have also been described as closer to a technology than a science, and often identified as similar to engineering, in the sense that its question is "what works" rather than "what is true". Its ultimate end products are, ideally, systematized models and usable approaches, rather than beliefs or facts.

The original developers claimed not to be interested in theory, and NLP teaches a practitioner to focus on "what works". However, this in no way prevents practitioners from creating and promoting their own theories behind NLP, and some have done this, basing theories upon a synthesis of core observable NLP combined with other personal, new age, psychological, and/or neurological concepts. Some trainers teach these theories as part of NLP.

NLP trainings do not teach the scientific method for assessing whether a change process is effective. They teach to observe subtle verbal and non-verbal cues, and it is implicit that there is no certainty in any given method and that flexibility is key. Many practitioners promise NLP will produce results, sometimes extraordinary in nature, without any scientifically proven results.

Self-declared scope

NLP does not recognize any ultimate mediator in the structure and organization of subjective human thought except the senses, sensory representations, and human neurology and physiology. However it does not place a limit on what may be represented within or by those systems – possibly by synesthesia, the experiencing of one form of sensation within a different sensory system. So NLP considers it a legitimate question to study the subjective experience, and subjective processes, of anything that humans claim to experience. This has led to wide proliferation covering for example:

• Recognized communication phenomena such as negotiation and parent-child communication
• Psychological phenomena such as phobias and regression
• Medical phenomena such as pain control, or ways to influence illness/wellness
• Phenomena mediated primarily by the unconscious such as post-hypnotic suggestion, unconscious communications, trance induction and utilization, and perception changes
• Broadly recognized but non-scientific phenomena such as meditation and enlightenment
• Altered states such as alcoholism, depression, dissociation, addiction and religious fervor
• Parapsychological phenomena such as ESP
• Body and lifestyle change such as breast enlargement and finding sexual partners
• Business situations such as sales and management coaching
• "Unpacking" of skills and situations previously regarded holistically, to reveal a way to make them separable and examine them analytically.
• Modelling of dead or famous people from what is known of them, such as Jesus Christ or Nelson Mandela. (That is to say, identifying subjectively what the experience of being these people might be like, and proposing detailed suggestions of the internal ways of thinking, based upon observed evidence, which enable them to be as they are/were)
• Development and systemization of more efficient and varied approaches to working with communication, and human beliefs and subjective reality.

Goals of NLP

A person seeking change is in effect seeking a path through an unfamiliar landscape, to a goal which at present they conceptualize they desire, but in some way lack a means to reach. In this sense, the place of the coach or "other" is to heuristically learn about and guide their exploration in a fruitful manner, by helping them with regard to alternative paths, the desirability of present goals, or their perceptions as to the landscape.

In this analogy, the purpose and function of NLP, then, is a step beyond this: - to provide a general philosophy and approach (together with tools and methodologies) that will assist a competent guide to generatively and more optimally fulfill this role in any completely different personal landscape, that is robust despite the immense variability of people, psychologies and circumstances.

Theory

Robert Dilts says that "NLP is theoretically rooted in neurology, psychophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics and communication theory".^[9] Other NLP proponents say it is not based on theory, it is based on modeling (and Richard Bandler states that he does not "do theory"). Dilts et al. state that NLP is more interested in what works than what is true.^[5]

NLP and science

In scientific terms, NLP is a protoscience -- that is, a body of purported knowledge that is still being evaluated by the scientific community. Reports vary from concluding that it has no benefit, to concluding it has very strong benefits. Many reports concluding that it shows evidence of "something", but that further study is required to determine within scientific standards where it stands.

Within science, NLP bears closest relationship to cognitive science.^[10] By way of comparison, George Lakoff one of America's most renowned linguists, describes "the major findings of cognitive science" as (1) abstract concepts being largely metaphorical (ie "The map is not the territory") and (2) the mind being inherently embodied (ie "Body and Mind form a systemic whole"). ^[11]

Meaning of "neuro linguistic programming"

The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.

Explaining the neuro in NLP in relation to V-K modalities(click to enlarge)

The developers of NLP, Bandler and Grinder, explain NLP follows Korzybski's ideas; that our maps of the world are distorted representations due to neurological functioning and constraints. ([1] p12). “Information about the world arrives at the receptors of the 5 senses and is then subjected to various neurological transforms (F1) and linguistic transforms (F2) even before our first access to the information, meaning we never experience an objective reality that hasn't been shaped by our language and neurology. (Grinder, 2001, Pgs 127, 171, 222)[24]

NLP Developer Robert Dilts (1983 p61) explains neural functioning in relation to the adding of new connections, Hebbian cell assemblies (Hebbian engrams), causal loops, and digital circuitry. From his observation of the work of scientist Konrad Lorenz, Dilts states that when learning experiences occur in our life, new neural networks are imprinted in our brains recording events and their associated meaning. Basing his conclusions in part on Timothy Leary's 8-Circuit Model of Consciousness, Dilts states that these imprints "established at neurologically critical periods," could be later re imprinted or reprogrammed. (Dilts, 1990, p76,77). Practitioners such as Derks, Singer, and Goldblatt theorize that NLP processes can be explained through the neurological concepts of programming and reprogramming engrams. According to Derks ^[12], NLP anchors are conditioned stimuli which work by activating engrams which are proposed "to give a patterned response which has been stabilized at the level of unconscious competence" ^[12]

Brain lateralization

Hemispheric differences (brain lateralization) are used to support assumptions in NLP. Robert Dilts proposes that eye movements (and sometimes gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/kinesthetic representation systems and to specific regions in the brain.^[13] For example, the left side is said to be more logical/analytical than the right side, which is said to be more creative/imaginative ^[14] and regions of the brain are said to be specialised for certain functions such as mathematics or language.^[15]

Historical background

Neuro-linguistic programming was developed jointly by Richard Bandler and John Grinder under the tutelage of anthropologist, social scientist, linguist and cyberneticist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s.

Originally a study into how excellent psychotherapists were achieving results they did, it rapidly grew into a field and methodology of its own, based around the skill of modeling as used to identify and confirm aspects of others behaviors and ways of thinking that led them to notability in their field. They took a similar approach to change. to them it did not matter if the client had an understanding for the problem, rather they focused on finding people who had successfully overcome, and how they did it.

The initial three individuals Grinder and Bandler modeled^[16] were Fritz Perls (Gestalt Therapy), Virginia Satir (Family therapy) and Milton H. Erickson (Ericksonian Hypnosis). These individuals were considered highly competent in their fields, and the consistent patterns and approaches they appeared to be using, became the basis of NLP. Grinder and Bandler analyzed the speaking patterns, voice tones, word selection, gesticulations, postures, and eye movements of these individuals and related this information to the internal thinking process of each participant. These were the first of what came to be called "modeling" projects. The findings of these projects have been widely used and integrated into many other fields, from health and disability, to law enforcement, to hypnotherapy and coaching.

In the 1960s and 1970s, general semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. Human potential seminars, such as Esalen in California began to attract people. Neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first but eventually drew the attention of business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" (Hall, 1994). As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed into a book, Frogs into Princes. This became a popular NLP book; demand for seminars increased, which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991).

Most of the techniques that are commonly grouped together as NLP can be traced back to the early published works of the co-founders and the group of developers that surrounded them in the 1970s. Bandler and Grinder took an immersion approach to learning, and would step into the shoes of successful people can learn how they did what they did. They would imitate these people, without an initial concern for understanding. This concept was carried through into their changework.

Their first published model, the meta model was an approach to change based on responding to the syntactic elements in a client's language which gave them information about the limits to their model of the world. Gregory Bateson, who wrote the forward for the first book on NLP, was impressed with the early work in NLP, and introduced the co-founders to Milton Erickson. Bateson became quite influential in the development of the people behind NLP, and providing many of the intellectual foundations for the field.

The pair became immersed in the world of Milton H. Erickson and were given full access to his work, they developed and published the Milton model based on Erickson's hypnotic language, therapeutic metaphors and other behavioral patterns such pacing and leading in to build rapport. Erickson and the co-founders shared the idea that conscious attention is limited and thus attempted to engage the willing attention of the unconscious mind through use of metaphor and other hypnotic language patterns.^[17] Other concepts and ideas surround conscious and unconscious mind were heavily influenced by Erickson:

"He does not translate unconscious communication into conscious form. Whatever the patient says in metaphoric form, Erickson responds [matches] in kind. By parables, by interpersonal action, and by directives, he works within the metaphor to bring about change. he seems to feel that the depth and swiftness of that change can be prevented if the person suffers a translation of the communication." (Haley, "Uncommon therapy", 1973 + 1986, p.28)

The early group (Dilts et al. 1980) observed that people tended to give away information about their unconscious processing in the current eye movements patterns, as well as changes in body posture, gestures, fluctuating voice tone, breathing shifts were linked to sensory-based language, "I see that clearly!", "I hear what you are saying" or "let's remain in touch" ^[5][18][19]. This formed the basis of the representational systems model. And in turn allowed them to develop approaches to map the strategies both successful people and clients in a therapeutic contexts. For example, the phobia reduction process involves separating (Visual / kinesthetic dissociation) that is supposed to reduce the negative feelings associated to a traumatic event ^[1][20] and submodality change work which involved altering representations of memory, for example, size, brightness, movement of internal images, in order to affect a behavioural change. ^{[21] [22]}. By being able to notice non-verbal cues that indicate internal processing as well as the type an sequence of the process, they were able to focus on pattern, rather than personal content of client. Other methods for change included anchoring, the process involving elicitation of resourceful memory, in order to bootstrap those for future contexts.

There are several beliefs and presuppositions that were published by the NLP developers that are still taught in NLP training that were designed to bring together some of the patterns that were shared by the successful therapists and experts in communication. Most of these area organised around Bateson/Korzybski's idea that the map is not the territory, multiple descriptions promotes choice and flexibility, people can organised personal resources (states, outcomes, beliefs) effectively in order to change themselves and achieve outcomes^[1]. Even a seemingly negative behavior or part is considered in NLP to be attempting to fulfill some positive intention (of which they may not be aware of consciously). These presuppositions may not be true, but it is useful to act as if they are in the change contexts. The last one, for example, assumes that the current behavior exhibited by a person represents the best choice available to them at the time.^[1][2]. All of these methods and techniques (anchoring, representational systems) require superb sensory acuity and calibration skills, considered to be prerequisites to using any of these models. Several of the presuppositions of NLP, related directly to this, for example, from William Ross Ashby, there is no failure, only feedback - statement about the importance of feedback loops to learning, borrowed from information theory.^[3] and the meaning of the communication is the response it produces.^[1]

With the 1980s, Grinder and Bandler fell out, and amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazard by many individuals, some ethically, and some opportunistically, often under multiple confusing brand names. During the 1990s, tentative attempts were made to put NLP on a more formal and better regulated footing, in countries such as the UK. Around 2001, the law suits finally became settled.

Criticism

Margaret Singer (1996)^[23] says that NLP proponents make hypotheses and propose armchair theories ^[23]. For example, NLP assumes that all human behavior is neurological, and all human behavior is based on the 5 senses, rather than attitudes, reason, emotions, mind, morals or ego ^[23]. According to research reviews ^[24], the main tenets of NLP has been found to be conceptually erroneous and false. Stephen Hunt, a sociologist who writes on Christian perspectives in sociology, characterizes NLP as a development with implied religiosity in the healing/self-development field and states that NLP is "an alternative to Scientology".^{[citation needed]} Barrett states that NLP "is used by some religions, and NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, but overall the balance comes down against it being labeled as a religion" ^[25]. Hunt states “While not an alternative religion per se” NLP can be seen as “similar to new religions of eastern origin that trace themselves back through a progression of gurus, and to esoteric movements claiming the authority of authenticity through their descent from previous movements". ^[26] Winkin (1990) also says that NLP is like a religion ^{(disputed—see talk page)} .

Sanghera, a columinst for Financial Times (London, 2005) writes, "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"^[27]

NLP has been criticized by clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups, concerning ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology, ethically questionable, cult-like characteristics, and promotion by exaggerated claims. Peter Schütz, Austrian management consultant, and psychotherapist who applies NLP to his profession, outlines the issues with varying length and quality of NLP training, and the difference between the hobbyist courses and full length training, he outlines some criticism of NLP saying it has even been, "labeled in unfavorable political ways (nazilinguistic programming)" ^[28]

^{[23] [29]}). In Crazy Therapies (1996), Singer ^[23] states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else".

Scientific analysis

On the questions of “does NLP work?” and “is NLP effective?” Singer (1996) cited the NRC research committee who stated that there was no evidence of its claimed effectiveness. ^[23].

Von Bergen et al ^[30] state that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error", and Druckman et al (1988) say that "instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors".

The 1988 US National Committee (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts) report found that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique"^[29]. In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work"^[31]. Heap (1989) says "NLP has failed to yield convincing evidence for the NLP model, and failed to provide evidence for its effectiveness" ^[32].

Heap ^[32] says "the conjecture that a person has a preferred representational system (PRS), which is observed in the choice of words, has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews" ^[32][33]. "The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support" ^[32][33].

A single critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) said that Sharpley's^[34] review of NLP contained methodological errors. However, Sharpley refuted this and provided further experimental evidence to demonstrate that NLP is ineffective and in error in both method and model^[4].

Von Bergen et al ^[30] state that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny". Thus, objective empirical studies ^[32][35][36] and review papers ^[29][33] have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analysis have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment, and the reiterated statement is that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP's claims, or any scientific support for its claimed efficacy ^{[4][37][38][23][39]}.

Efran and Lukens ^[40] state that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy". Eisner (2000) states that "NLP proponents have provided not one iota of scientific support for their claims" ^[39]

Devilly ^[41] states that "controlled studies shed such a poor light on NLP and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that that researchers found it unwise to test the theory any further". "NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets: The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains and some people still enroll".

Beyerstein states that NLP is a pseudoscientific fringe therapy ^[24], and explains that "bogus therapies can be explained by the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment , and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures."^[42] In Brianscams, Beyerstein states that when the New Age brain manipulators such as NLP are challenged, "critics typically encounter anecdotes and user testimonials where there ought to be rigorous pre-and post treatment comparisons" ^[24].

NLP as a New Age approach

New Age

Psychologists Beyerstein and Lilienfeld class NLP as a New Age development ^[43][44], and Kelly ^[45] says NLP was involved in the foundation of the New Age. This is partly due to related New Age notions that were common at the time of development, such as Dianetics promoted by Perls, the human potential theorist. According to Dilts ^[18], Grinder developed NLP rituals from the shamanic teachings of Carlos Castaneda, such as the NLP double induction process, and perceptual positions, designed to move attention or energy to other realities.

Despite the lack of empirical evidence, NLP adherents continue to believe in its efficacy for personal and spiritual growth, and as such, NLP has been associated with New Alternative Religions and an alternative to Scientology ^[46], though its religiosity is more implied and it is less organized than the Church of Scientology. ^[46]

Beyerstein and Lilienfeld, characterize NLP as a New Age therapy. Devilly, a professor of psychology considers NLP to be an "alphabet" or "power therapy" similar to Thought Field Therapy or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, Emotional Freedom Technique and Traumatic Incident Reduction. Corballis ^[47] states that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability. NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".

Barrett (2001:238) states that "Like many alternative religions, particularly the Estoeric movements, there is a career ladder within NLP. Many people find the introductory seminar interesting and thirst for more. Practitioner training is the place to go next.

Sharpley, Druckman, and the National Research Council have criticised NLP in research reviews which conclude that its claims are unsupported and that it has failed to show its claimed efficacy in controlled studies ^[48][49][38]. Several reviews have characterized NLP as pseudoscientific and mass-marketed psychobabble^[37][50]. NLP is identified by many scientists as charlatanry and fraudulent ^[51][52][53] as a dubious therapy and a cult ^[54][39] described by Winkin ^[55] and is promoted in the same mold as Dianetics and Scientology^[48][38][50]. Beyerstein ^[24], Lilienfeld ^[38], and Eisner ^[39] express concern over the verification of certain aspects of NLP.

Alternate brands

Individual trainers have often introduced or idiosyncratically developed their own methods, concepts and labels, branding them under the "NLP" name ^[56]:

• John Grinder teaches New Code of NLP
• Anthony Robbins teaches NAC (Neuro Associative Conditioning^TM)
• Michael Hall teaches Neuro-Semantics^TM
• Tad James teaches Advanced Neuro Dynamics^TM & Time Line Therapy^TM
• Richard Bandler himself now teaches his own offshoot of NLP, called DHE (Design Human Engineering^TM)
• Margo Anand promotes a form of NLP called SkyDancing Tantra^TM

NLP "Therapy"

Dilts ^[18]and Grinder (1999) have proposed that healing is facilitated by 1; Ritual 2; Prayer, and 3; Relationship to an authority or guardian angel. They propose that this applies equally throughout every healing situation. "Experts such as Beyerstein (1990p31) and ^[57] consider NLP to be a fringe or alternative therapy . Although studies on NLP have failed to support its claimed effectiveness ^[23], NLP is used, or suggested as an approach, by a few mental health bodies, including the National Phobics Society of Great Britain ^[58], MIND ^[59] , ^[60], the British Stammering Association ^[61], the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism ^[62],^[63]. Around 1978, NLP practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. Barrett 2001:239) says that NLP promoters sell a biofeedback GSR meter which is "cheaper and perhaps more effective than the Scientology E-meter". The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies ^[64] and others classify NLP as a "dubious therapy".

False claims to science

Singer (1996) states that "NLP often associates itself with science in order to raise its own prestige" ^[48]. Anthropologist Winkin ^[55] yet Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) say that "the coding phase of NLP modeling is at present an art"^[19].

Singer (1996:172) ^[23] states that "none of the NLP developers have done any research to "prove" their models correct though NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators scientists and use such terms as science, technology and hi-tech psychology in describing NLP". CAP, a UK-based advertising body has issued an advisory in relation to "Stop smoking claims by hypnotherapists" that "references to NLP should avoid implying that it is a new science" ^[65].

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states that (translated into English by Drenth) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming" ^[37][66].

Pseudoscience

Winkin 1990 and Beyerstein 1990 associate NLP with the classic pseudoscience of phrenology

NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development ^{[66] [50][38][37]}, in the same mold as EST (Landmark Forum) and Dianetics(Scientology). Self-help critic Salerno ^[67] associates NLP with pseudoscience, and has criticized its promotion as self-help. Psychologists such as Singer ^[48] and management experts such as Von Bergen (1997) have criticized its use within management and human resources developments.

Numerous extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters. There have been claims that the heightening of perception using NLP can allow a novice martial artist to beat an expert ^[68], and that it is possible to develop photographic memory through the use of NLP ^[3].

Historically, NLP has many pseudoscientific associations such as the explicit and implicit erroneous adherence to the subconscious engram concept ^[69], claims to rapid cures and treatment of traumas, the use of popular new age myths such as unlimited potential, left/right brain simplicities, past life regression, and the use marketing/recruitment models similar to that of Dianetics (Scientology) and other cults ^[70].

Pseudoscience is prone to certain fallacies and characteristics. These can be; Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of un-validated claims ^[71][72].

Lilienfeld ^[38] states "the characteristics of pseudoscience are more specifically shown thus", for example:

• "The use of obscurantist language" (eg meta programs, parapragmatics, representational systems, submodalities etc)
• "The absence of connectivity" ^[66]
• "Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence" ^[73]
• "An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses and reversed burden of proof designed to immunize claims from falsification" ^[48]
• "Emphasis on confirmation rather than refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)"
• "Absence of boundary conditions"
• "Reversed burden of proof (away from those making claim (NLP promoters), and towards those testing the claim (Scientists))".
• "The mantra of holism and eclecticism designed to immunize from verifiable efficacy" ^[38](Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors or to simplistically “do what works”^[39].
• "Evasion of peer review" (If claims were true, why were they not properly documented and presented to the scientific community?)^[39]

Pseudoscientific arguments tend to contain several or all of these factors, as can be seen in this example [77] that shows ad hoc hypotheses and holistic argument as an attempt to explain away the negative findings, and an emphasis on confirmation and reversed burden of proof etc.

Critics point of that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors ^[29]. Modern neuroscience indicates that NLP's notions of neurology are erroneous and pseudoscientific in regards to: left/right brain hemispheric differences ^[70][18][37], the association of eye movements or body gestures to brain hemispheres. The idea that people have visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles which has little substantative evidence ^{[citation needed]}.

Robert Carrol ^[56] states that it is impossible to determine a "correct" NLP model. NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed and pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology community for decades^[39].

Ethical concerns

In principle, NLP is usually described as a "client-oriented" methodology, in that the client's subjective perception is treated with respect, and to a large degree the client's developing perception of a problem or situation which provides the feedback and basis for guidance within NLP intervention. In business or conflict resolution NLP usually advocates a win-win philosophy. The term "ecology" (borrowed in the sense of "how disparate things co-exist in balance") is used to signify the careful checking needed to ensure that all aspects of a situation are taken into account, such as the well-being of others involved, the ethics of the work done, the beneficial nature of goals sought, any secondary gains affected, and so on. ^[74]

Because NLP methods can be used unethically, lack of careful regard to ecology is considered unacceptable or inappropriate by most professionals. However, because no central body controls or regulates NLP at this time, there is in practice a wide profusion of individuals and groups using NLP in precisely that way, and this has drawn strong criticism from a wide range of sources.

Ethical concerns of NLP’s encouragement towards manipulation have been raised. As such, NLP is seen as encouraging people to find more ways to manipulate individuals against their will within seduction, sales and business settings. NLP book titles include "The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP" and “NLP the New Art and Science of Getting What You Want”. ^{[citation needed]}

The therapy and coaching fields require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counseling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines). It has been found that NLP certified practitioners often show a weak grasp of ethics ^[75]. ^{[citation needed]}

In addition, Beyerstein ^[76] states that "ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands". NLP is also criticised for unethically encouraging the belief in non existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals^[67]. Drenth 2003 explains that NLP is driven by economic motives and "manipulation of credulity" of clients, and explains that "often pseudoscientific practices are motivated by loathsome pursuit of gain". Drenth clarifies this with reference to the well known "financial exploitation of the victims of scientology, avantar and similar movements".

NLP has also been described as a commercial cult, and has been criticised within the business sector for being coercive, including undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs and intense confrontational psychological techniques, tantamount to forced religious conversion ^[77]. Its various forms, such as those promoted by Grinder, and Tony Robbins are said to be ill conceived and coercive in some business settings ^[75]. ^{[citation needed]}

Questionable applications

Currently, there is criticism from psychotherapists about the promotion of NLP and dubious therapies within psychotherapy associations ^[38][39]. NLP certification for therapists in general still does not require any professional qualifications ^[39].

Singer 1996 criticises Dilts for presenting the healing patterns of Jesus of Nazareth

• Human resources: As with other pseudoscientific subjects, human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al (1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training [78]. NLP has been found to be most ineffective concerning influence/persuasion and modeling of skills ^[29]. There is a general view that NLP is dubious and is not to be taken seriously in a business context ^[75][78]. Within management training there have also been complaints towards NLP concerning undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.^[77]

Many such courses appear to depend more upon charismatic appeal, wish-fulfillment, quick fixes, and lack of critical faculty, than actual quantifiable results, and so are often considered pseudoscience. The original fad of NLP has undergone further controversy and abandonment since the further realization that it is simply a fad and a cult, and the divorce of Tony Robbins despite his commercial promotion of "Perfect Marriage" counseling has led to a great deal of disenchantment from his own followers ^[67]. The various claims NLP proponents make have no clinical support and are grossly missleading ^[39]

• Education: Although Winkin ^[55]. Beyerstein ^[24] states that a method should be supported using controlled studies before it is applied in education.

• Cosmetic effect claims: NLP is applied to breast enhancement and penis enlargement. For example, the NLP practitioner, Goodman ^[79] sells NLP audio recordings of the NLP swish pattern for enlarging penis size. Eisner ^[39] states that if these miraculous effects are true, then why have they not been properly documented, nor presented to the scientific community? ^[39]

• Occult and New Age practices: Winkin ^[55] states that with its promotion with Tai Chi, Meditation, and Dianetics (Scientology), NLP is in the margins of contemporary obscurantism. NLP is often criticised as being a dubious new age therapy ^{[citation needed]}. Practitioners sometimes attempt to model spiritual experiences, which inherently, are lacking in scientific support. NLP's new age background often leads to it being sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic such as those by (by Richard Bandler) or Huna (by Tad James) ^{[citation needed]}.

Cult characteristics

NLP is sometimes referred to in scientific research reviews as a cult.^[32][77] Others have described it as a psychocult ^[80][81] and in research it is often considered to be akin to a cult.^{[82][83][39][4]} A German educational ministry banned the use of NLP in education and stated that it has a close similarity to Scientology.^{[81][citation needed]}

Similar to other pseudoscientific subjects such as Dianetics (Scientology) and EST (Landmark)^[84] NLP is adopted as a pretext for applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and social pressure to obtain compliance from the cult's victim or to induce dependence on the cult.^[82] According to Devilly^[41] it is common for pseudoscientific developments to set up a granfalloon in order to promote in-group rituals and jargon, and to attack critics. Thus, although NLP is ineffective for its stated purposes, it is used as a fake science in a similar way to other pseudoscientific therapies such as primal scream therapy, EST^[84] and Dianetics. ^{[citation needed]}

See also